Sigmund Freud ( "English respelling pronunciation"> FROYD ; German: ['zi: km? nt' f ??? t] ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud 6 May 1856 - September 23, 1939) was an Austrian neuroscientist and founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between patients and psychoanalysts.
Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the town of Moravia, Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire. He qualified as a medical doctor in 1881 at the University of Vienna. After completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed an expert in the field of neuropathology and became an affiliate professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having established his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape from the Nazis. He died in exile in England in 1939.
In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free associations and discovered transference, building a central role in the analytic process. Redefinition of Freud's sexuality to incorporate his childish form led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central principle of psychoanalytic theory. His analysis of dreams as a fulfillment of desire gave him a model for clinical analysis of the formation of symptoms and underlying suppression mechanisms. On this basis Freud outlined his theory of unconsciousness and proceeded to develop a model of psychic structure consisting of id, ego and super-ego. Freud postulates the existence of libido, an energy by which mental processes and structures are invested and which produce erotic attachment, and the impulse of death, the source of compulsive repetition, hatred, aggression, and neurotic guilt. In later work, Freud developed a broad interpretation and critique of religion and culture.
Despite its overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential in psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, and throughout the humanities. Thus, he continues to produce widespread and highly debated debates regarding his therapeutic efficacy, scientific status, and whether he is advancing or harming for feminist purposes. Nevertheless, Freud's work has paralyzed contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of honor of H. H. Auden's 1940 poem, at the time of Freud's death, he has become "the climate of overall opinion/under them we are doing our different lives."
Video Sigmund Freud
Biography
Early life and education
Freud was born to Jewish parents in the town of Moravia, Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire (later P? ÃÆ'bor, Czech Republic), the first of eight children. Both his parents came from Galicia, in modern Ukraine. His father, Jakob Freud (1815-1896), a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel (1833-1914) and Philipp (1836-1911), with his first marriage. The Jakob family is a Hasidic Jew, and although Jakob himself has shifted from tradition, he is later known for his Torah lessons. He and Freud's mother Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, married Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on July 29, 1855. They fought financially and stayed in a rented room, at the locksmith's house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. She was born with a caul, which her mother saw as a positive sign for the boy's future.
In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg. Freud's half-sisters emigrated to Manchester, England, separating him from an "inseparable" playmate from his childhood, Emanuel's son, John. Jakob Freud brought his wife and two children (Freud's sister, Anna, born in 1858, a brother, Julius who was born in 1857, died in infancy) first to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born: Rosa (b) 1860), Marie (1861), Adolfine (b.1862), Paula (b) 1864), Alexander (b) 1866). In 1865, a nine-year-old Freud entered LeopoldstÃÆ'¤dter Kommunal-Realgymnasium , a prominent secondary school. He proved a remarkable student and graduated from Matura in 1873 with praise. He likes literature and proficiency in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin, and Greek.
Freud entered the University of Vienna at the age of 17 years. He had planned to study law, but joined the faculty of medicine at the university, where his studies included philosophy under Franz Brentano, physiology under Ernst BrÃÆ'¼cke, and zoology under Darwinist professor Carl Claus. In 1876, Freud spent four weeks at the Claus zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an unconvincing search for their male reproductive organs. In 1877 Freud moved to the physiology laboratory Ernst BrÃÆ'¼cke where he spent six years comparing human brains and other vertebrates with invertebrates such as frogs, crayfish and lampreys. His research work on biological neural network proven to be seminal for the subsequent discovery of neurons in the 1890s. Freud's research work was disrupted in 1879 by the obligation to perform one-year compulsory military service. A long delay allows him to complete a commission to translate four essays from the collected works of John Stuart Mill. He graduated with MD in March 1881.
Early career and marriage
In 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital. His research work on the anatomy of the brain led to the publication of a paper affecting the palliative effects of cocaine in 1884 and his work on aphasia would be the basis of his first book Aphasia: Critical Study , published in 1891. Over a three-year period, working in various hospital departments. The time he spent at Theodor Meynert's psychiatric clinics and as a locus at a local hospital led to increased interest in clinical work. His large published research agency led to his appointment as a university lecturer or guide in the field of neuropathology in 1885, a non-salary post but who gave him the right to lecture at the University of Vienna.
In 1886, Freud withdrew from the hospital post and entered a private practice specializing in "neurological disorders". That same year he married Martha Bernays, granddaughter of Isaac Bernays, a rabbi head in Hamburg. The couple had six children: Mathilde (b.1887), Jean-Martin (b) 1889), Oliver (b) 1891), Ernst (b.1892), Sophie (b) 1893), and Anna (b). From 1891 until they left Vienna in 1938, Freud and his family lived in an apartment on Berggasse 19, near Innere Stadt, a historic district in Vienna.
In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister, became a permanent member of the Freud family after the death of her fiancee. The close relationship he formed with Freud caused a rumor, started by Carl Jung, from an affair. The discovery of Swiss hotel logs August 13, 1898, signed by Freud while traveling with his brother-in-law, has been presented as evidence of an affair.
Freud began smoking tobacco at the age of 24; Originally a smoker, he became a cigar smoker. He believes that smoking increases his capacity for work and he can exercise self-control in moderating it. Despite the health warnings of his co-worker Wilhelm Fliess, he remains a smoker, eventually suffering from buccal cancer. Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addiction, including tobacco, was a substitute for masturbation, "the only great habit."
Freud greatly admired his philosophical teacher, Brentano, known for his theories of perception and introspection, and Theodor Lipps who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concept of unconsciousness and empathy. Brentano discussed the possibility of the existence of the unconscious mind in his book Psychology of the Empirical Angle (1874). Although Brentano denies his existence, his discussion of unconsciousness may help introduce Freud to the concept. Freud owns and uses the main evolutionary writings of Charles Darwin, and is also influenced by Eduard von Hartmann's
Although Freud denied reading Friedrich Nietzsche until the end of his life, the analogy between his work and Nietzche's work was warned as soon as he developed followers. One historian concludes, based on Freud's correspondence with his teenage friend Eduard Silberstein, that Freud read The Birth of Tragedy and the first two of Endless Meditation when he was seventeen. In 1900, the year of Nietzsche's death, Freud bought his collected work; he told his friend, Fliess, that he hoped to find in Nietzche's works, "words for many that remain silent in me." Later, she says she has not opened them yet. Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings "as a text that must be opposed much more than to be learned." His interest in philosophy declined after he decided to pursue a career in neurology.
Freud read William Shakespeare in English throughout his life, and it has been suggested that his understanding of human psychology may have originated in part from the Shakespearean drama.
Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity had a significant influence in the formation of intellectual and moral views, especially with regard to his intellectual dissonance, since he was the first person to show in his autobiographical studies. They will also have a substantial effect on the contents of the psychoanalytic idea "especially in terms of the rationalist values ​​that have become their own commitments."
Development of psychoanalysis
In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a scholarship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologist who undertook scientific research in hypnosis. He then recalled this experience remained as a catalyst in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less promising career financially in neurological research. Charcot specializes in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he often shows with patients on stage in front of an audience.
Once he started practicing in 1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work. He adopted the approach of his friend and collaborator, Josef Breuer, in the use of hypnotism that was different from the French method he had learned because it did not use suggestions. Breuer's one patient treatment proved to be transformative for Freud's clinical practice. Described as Anna O., she is invited to talk about her symptoms when under hypnosis (she will send a phrase "talking medicine" for her treatment). On the way of speaking in this way these symptoms become lessened in severity as he takes his memory of traumatic incidents related to their onset.
Freud's clinical work ultimately leads him to the conclusion that symptom relief that is more consistent and effective, compared to that achieved by using hypnosis, can be obtained by encouraging patients to speak freely, uncensored or inhibitory, about any idea or memory that occurs to them. In relation to this procedure, which he calls "free association," Freud finds that the patient's dream can be well analyzed to reveal the complex structuring of the unconscious material and to demonstrate the psychic action of underlying repression of the formation of symptoms. In 1896, Freud had abandoned hypnosis and used the term "psychoanalysis" to refer to his new clinical methods and theories on which they were based.
Freud's development of these new theories occurred during the period in which he experienced a heart aberration, disturbing dreams and periods of depression, a "neurasthenia" that he attributed to his father's death in 1896 and which encouraged "self-analysis" of his own dreams and memories of childhood. His exploration of his feelings of hostility toward his father and his jealousy over his mother's affection led him to revise his theory of the origin of neurosis in a fundamental way.
On the basis of early clinical work, Freud has postulated that the subconscious memory of sexual abuse in early childhood is a necessary prerequisite for psychoneuroses (hysteria and obsessive neurosis), a formulation now known as Freud's seduction theory. In light of his own analysis, Freud abandoned the theory that any neurosis can be traced back to the effects of child sexual abuse, now arguing that infantile sexual scenarios still have causative functions, but no matter whether they are real or not. imagined and that in both cases they become pathogens only when acting as repressed memories.
The transition from the theory of infantile sexual trauma as a general explanation of how all neurosis stems from one that presumes autonomous childish sexuality provides the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation of the Oedipus complex theory.
Freud described the evolution of his clinical method and established his theory of the histogenetic origin of hysteria, shown in a number of case histories, in the Study of Hysteria published in 1895 (co-authored by Josef Breuer). In 1899 he published The Interpretation of Dreams, where, after a critical review of the existing theory, Freud gave a detailed interpretation of his own and his patients' dreams of fulfilling the desires made subject to the oppression and censorship of the " dream job". He then sets the theoretical model of the mental structure (unconsciousness, pre-conscious and conscious) that forms the basis of this account. The short version, On Dreams , was published in 1901. In the works that would make it a more general reader, Freud applied his theory beyond the clinical setting at The Psychopathology of Everyday Life > (1901) and Jokes and Their Relation to Unconscious (1905). In the Three Essays of the Theory of Sexuality published in 1905, Freud outlined his theory of children's sexuality, describing the forms of "heretical polymorphism" and "drive" functions, which he generated, in the formation of sexual identity. In the same year he published 'Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria (Dora)' which became one of his more famous and controversial case studies.
Relationship with Fliess
During the period of the formation of his work, Freud appreciated and relied on the intellectual and emotional support of his friend Wilhelm Fliess, a Berlin-based ear, nose and throat specialist whom he first met in 1887. Both men saw themselves isolated from the clinical mainstream and theoretical effect because of their ambition to develop a radical new theory of sexuality. Fliess developed a very eccentric theory of human biorhythms and a nasogenital relationship that is currently considered pseudoscientific. He shared Freud's view of the importance of certain aspects of sexuality-masturbation, coitus interruptus, and condom use-in the etiology of what came to be called "actual neurosis," particularly neurasthenia and anxiety symptoms manifested physically. They maintain a broad correspondence from which Freud drew Fliess's speculations on sexuality and childish bisexuality to decipher and revise his own ideas. His first attempt at the systematic theory of mind, the Project for Scientific Psychology was developed as metapsychology with Fliess as a companion. However, Freud's attempt to build a bridge between neurology and psychology was finally abandoned after they had reached a dead end, as his letters to Fliess revealed, although the best ideas of the Project had to be taken again in the closing chapter > The Interpretation of Dreams .
Freud had Fliess repeatedly operating on his nose and sinuses to treat "neural neurosis nasal", and then referred his patient Emma Eckstein to him. According to Freud, the history of symptoms includes severe leg pain with limited mobility, and abdominal pain and menstruation. This pain, according to Fliess's theory, caused by habitual masturbation which, like the related nasal and genital tissues, can be cured by removing part of the central conz. Fliess surgery proved to be disastrous, resulting in recurrent nasal bleeding - he left half the gauge gauze in Eckstein's nasal cavity, which was later removed which made him permanently disabled. At first, despite being aware of Fliess's fault - Freud escaped from a repair operation in fear - he could only bring himself into intimate relationships in correspondence to Fliess the nature of the catastrophic role and in subsequent letters maintaining a thoughtful silence on this issue or else returning to the topic of rescue face of Eckstein hysteria. Freud finally, in light of Eckstein's narrations of self-mutilation and irregular nose bleeding and menstruation, concludes that Fliess is "absolutely blameless," because Eckstein's postoperative bleeding is a hysterical "wish" associated with "longing to be loved in his illness "and triggered as a means of" supportive of [Freud's] affection. "Eckstein continued his analysis with Freud, he was returned to full mobility and proceeded to practice his own psychoanalysis.
Freud, who has called Fliess "the Kepler of theology", then concludes that the combination of homoerotic attachment and the residue of his "Jewish mysticism" lies behind his loyalty to his Jewish friends and the consequences are too much of both theoretical. and clinical work. Their friendship came to a fierce end with Fliess angry at Freud's aversion to supporting the general theory of sexual periodicity and accusing him of collusion in his plagiarism. After Fliess failed to respond to Freud's collaboration offer for the publication of his book The Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1906, their relationship ended.
Initial followers
In 1902, Freud finally realized his long-standing ambition to become a university professor. The title of "professor extraordinarius" was important to Freud for his recognition and prestige, no salary or teaching duties attached to the post (he would be given an enhanced status of "professor ordinarius" in 1920). Despite the support of the university, his appointment has been blocked in successive years by political authorities and it is guaranteed only by the intervention of one of the more influential former patients, Baroness Marie Ferstel, who must bribe the education minister with a painting.
With his growing prestige, Freud continued with a series of regular lectures in his work which, since the mid-1880s as a guide of the University of Vienna, he had conveyed to a small audience every Saturday night in the university psychiatric clinic lecture hall..
From the fall of 1902, a number of Vienna doctors who had expressed interest in Freud's work were invited to meet in his apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss issues related to psychology and neuropathology. This group is called the Wednesday Psychological Society ( Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft ) and marks the beginning of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.
Freud founded this discussion group at the advice of the physician Wilhelm Stekel. Stekel studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Richard von Krafft-Ebing. His conversion to psychoanalysis was heavily linked to Freud's successful treatment of sexual problems or as a result of his reading of The Interpretation of Dreams, which he then gave a positive review in the Vienna daily newspaper Neues Wiener Tagblatt >.
The other three original members that Freud invited to attend, Alfred Adler, Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also doctors and all were Jews from birth. Both Kahane and Reitler were Freud's childhood friends. Kahane had attended the same high school and he and Reitler went to university with Freud. They continued to follow the development of Freud's ideas through their presence at the lecture on Saturday night. In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work, had opened an outpatient psychotherapeutic institution where he was director at Bauernmarkt, in Vienna. In the same year, his medical book, Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practitioners Doctor, was published. In it, he outlines Freud's psychoanalytic methods. Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 committed suicide. Reitler was the director of a company providing hot medication at Dorotheergasse which had been established in 1901. He died prematurely in 1917. Adler, considered the greatest intellect among Freud's early circles, was a socialist who in 1898 had written health manual. for sewing trade. He is very interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry.
Max Graf, a Viennese musician and father of "Little Hans", who first met Freud in 1900 and joined the group Wednesday soon after the beginning of its formation, described the ritual and atmosphere of the early community meetings:
The meetings follow a definite ritual. First one member will present a paper. Then, coffee and black cake served; cigars and cigarettes are on the table and consumed in large quantities. After a quarter social hour, the discussion will begin. The final and firm word is always spoken by Freud himself. There is an atmosphere of religious foundation in the room. Freud himself was his new prophet who made the method of psychological oppression before it became superficial.
By 1906, the group had grown to sixteen members, including Otto Rank, who was employed as the group's paid secretary. In the same year, Freud began his correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung who was then an academically recognized researcher in the word association and Galvanized Skin Response, and a lecturer at the University of Zurich, although still only Eugen Bleuler's assistant at the Burgha Mental Hospital  lzli in ZÃÆ'¼rich. In March 1907, Jung and Ludwig Binswanger, also a Swiss psychiatrist, traveled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend a discussion group. After that, they formed a small psychoanalytic group in ZÃÆ'¼rich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status, the group renamed Wednesday the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
In 1911, the first female member was admitted to the Society. Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina Spielrein are Russian psychiatrists and University of Zurich medical school graduates. Prior to completing his studies, Spielrein had become Jung's patient in BurghÃÆ'¶lzli and the personal and clinical details of their relationship became the subject of extensive correspondence between Freud and Jung. Both women will continue to make an important contribution to the work of the Russian Psychoanalytic Society established in 1910.
Freud's early followers met formally for the first time at the Bristol Hotel, Salzburg on April 27, 1908. This meeting, which is retrospectively considered the first International Psychoanalytic Congress, was held on the advice of Ernest Jones, later based in London. a neurologist who had discovered the writings of Freud and began to apply psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work. Jones had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they met again at ZÃÆ'¼rich to organize the Congress. There are, as Jones noted, "forty-two people present, half of them being or being practical analysts." In addition to Jones and the Viennese and ZÃÆ'¼rich contingents that accompany Freud and Jung, are also present and important for their subsequent interests in the psychoanalytic movement are Karl Abraham and Max Eitingon of Berlin, Budapest's SÃÆ'¡oror Ferenczi and Abraham Brill, based in New York..
Important decisions are taken in Congress with the aim of advancing the impact of Freud's work. A journal,
Freud turned to Brill and Jones to advance his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speaking world. Both were invited to Vienna after the Salzburg Congress and a work division was approved with Brill awarded translation rights for Freud's works, and Jones, who took a position at the University of Toronto later this year, was commissioned to set up a platform for Freudian ideas in academic and medical life in North America. Jones's advocacy prepared the way for Freud's visit to the United States, accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in September 1909 at the invitation of Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis.
The event, in which Freud was awarded an Honorary Doctorate, marked the first public recognition of Freud's work and attracted widespread media interest. Freud's audience includes renowned neurologist and psychiatrist James Jackson Putnam, Professor of Neurosurgical System at Harvard, who invited Freud to his country retreat where they held extensive discussions for four days. Putnam's next public support of Freud's work is a significant breakthrough for psychoanalytic causes in the United States. When Putnam and Jones organized the founding of the American Psychoanalytic Association in May 1911, they were elected president and secretary. Brill founded the New York Psychoanalytic Society in the same year. His English translation of Freud's work began to emerge from 1909.
Resignation from IPA
Some Freud followers then withdraw from the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) and set up their own school.
From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to be very different from those held by Freud. When Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism, a series of confrontations between their respective views took place at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society meeting in January and February 1911. In February 1911, Adler, then president of society, resigned from his position. At this time, Stekel also resigned from his position as vice president of society. Adler eventually left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to establish his own organization with nine other members who had also resigned from the group. This new formation was originally called the Society for Free Psychoanalysis but was soon renamed the Society for Individual Psychology. In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with the psychological position he drafted called individual psychology.
In 1912, Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (published in English in 1916 as Psychology of the Unconscious ) which made it clear that his views took a very different direction from that of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology. Anticipating the breakup of relations between Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated the formation of a loyalist secret Committee tasked with maintaining the theoretical coherence and institutional legacy of the psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the fall of 1912, the Committee consists of Freud, Jones, Abraham, Ferenczi, Rank, and Hanns Sachs. Max Eitingon joined the Committee in 1919. Each member promised not to make any public departure from the basic principles of psychoanalytic theory before he discussed his views with others. After this development, Jung realized that his position was untenable and resigned as editor of Jarhbuch and then as IPA president in April 1914. The ZÃÆ'¼rich society withdrew from the IPA in July next.
Later in the same year, Freud published a paper entitled "The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement," the first German work to be published in Jahrbuch, giving his view of the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from him.
The final defection of Freud's inner circle occurred after the publication in 1924 of Rank's The Trauma of Birth that other committee members read as, in essence, left the Oedipus Complex as the main principle of psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and Jones became increasingly strong critics of Rank and although he and Freud were reluctant to end their long-standing relationship, eventually the breakup finally came in 1926 when Rank resigned from his official post in Science and left Vienna for Paris. His place on the committee was taken by Anna Freud. The rank finally settled in the United States where the Freudian theory revision that affected the new generation of therapists was uncomfortable with the orthodoxy of the IPA.
Early psychoanalytic movement
After the establishment of the IPA in 1910, the international network of psychoanalytic societies, training institutions and clinics became established and the regular schedule of the biennial Congress began after the end of World War I to coordinate their activities.
Abraham and Eitingon founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society in 1910 and later the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute and the Polyclinics in 1920. The Polyclinic innovation on free care, and the child's analysis and standardization of psychoanalytic training of the Berlin Institute had a major influence on the wider psychoanalytic movement. In 1927 Ernst Simmel founded the Schloss Tegel Sanatorium on the outskirts of Berlin, the first company to provide psychoanalytic care within an institutional framework. Freud arranged funds to help finance his activities and his architect's son, Ernst, was tasked with updating the building. It was forced to close in 1931 for economic reasons.
The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society became the Russian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute in 1922. Freud's followers in Russia were the first to benefit from his translation of the 1904 Russian translation of The Interpretation of Dreams that appeared nine years before Brill's English edition. The Russian institution is unique in receiving state support for its activities, including the publication of the translations of Freud's works. Support was suddenly abandoned in 1924, when Joseph Stalin came to power, after which psychoanalysis was criticized on the basis of ideology.
After helping find the American Psychoanalytic Association in 1911, Ernest Jones returned to England from Canada in 1913 and founded the London Psychoanalytic Society that same year. In 1919, he disbanded the organization and, with its core membership cleared of Jung's followers, founded the British Psychoanalytical Society, serving as its president until 1944. The Institute of Psychoanalysis was founded in 1924 and the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis was founded in 1926, both under The post of director of Jones.
The Vienna Ambulance (Clinic) was founded in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the position of director Helene Deutsch. Ferenczi founded the Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic in 1929.
The society and the psychoanalytic institute were founded in Switzerland (1919), France (1926), Italy (1932), the Netherlands (1933), Norway (1933) and in Palestine (Jerusalem, 1933) by Eitingon, who fled Berlin after Adolf Hitler came to power. The New York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931.
The Berlin Congress of 1922 was the last Freud to be attended. By this time his speech had become a serious annoyance by the prosthetic device he needed as a result of a series of operations on his cancer jaw. He continues to follow developments through regular correspondence with his main followers and through the circular letters and secret meetings of the Secret Committee he continues to attend.
The Committee continued to function until 1927 at which time the institutional development in science, such as the establishment of the International Training Commission, has overcome concerns about the transmission of psychoanalytic theory and practice. However, there remains a significant difference regarding the issue of lay analysis - the acceptance of candidates who do not meet the medical requirements for psychoanalytic training. Freud began his case in 1926 in his book The Question of Lay Analysis . He is expressly opposed by American society expressing concern over professional standards and litigation risks (although child analysts are made excluded). This concern is also shared by several colleagues in Europe. Finally the agreement was reached allowing public autonomy in setting criteria for candidacy.
In 1930 Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognition of his contribution to the psychology and culture of German literature.
Patient
Freud used a pseudonym in his case history. Some patients known under the pseudonyms are CÃÆ'¤cilie M. (Anna von Lieben); Dora (Ida Bauer, 1882-1945); Frau Emmy von N. (Fanny Moser); FrÃÆ'¤ulein Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss); FrÃÆ'¤ulein Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); FrÃÆ'¤ulein Lucy R.; Little Hans (Herbert Graf, 1903-1973); Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer, 1878-1914); Enos Fingy (Joshua Wild, 1878-1920); and Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff, 1887-1979). Other notable patients include Prince Pedro Augusto of Brazil (1866-1934); H.D. (1886-1961); Emma Eckstein (1865-1924); Gustav Mahler (1860-1911), with whom Freud had only one consultation, was extended; Princess Marie Bonaparte; Edith Banfield Jackson (1895-1977); and Albert Hirst (1887-1974).
Cancer
In February 1923, Freud detected leukoplakia, a benign growth associated with heavy smoking, in his mouth. Freud initially kept this secret, but in April 1923 he told Ernest Jones, telling him that growth had been removed. Freud consulted dermatologist Maximilian Steiner, who advised him to quit smoking but lied about the seriousness of the growth, minimizing his interests. Freud then saw Felix Deutsch, who saw that his growth was cancerous; he identifies it with Freud using the "bad leukoplakia" euphemism rather than the technical diagnosis of epithelioma. Deutsch suggested Freud to quit smoking and cut its growth. Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a rhinologist whose competence he had previously been questioned. Hajek undertook unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his clinic outpatient department. Freud bleeds during and after surgery, and probably almost escapes death. Freud then sees Deutsch again. Deutsch sees that further operations will be necessary, but does not tell Freud that he has cancer because he fears that Freud might want to commit suicide.
Escape from Nazism
In January 1933, the Nazi Party controlled Germany, and Freud's books stand out among those burned and destroyed. Freud told Ernest Jones: "What progress we made, In the Middle Ages they will burn me, now they are satisfied with burning my books." Freud continued to underestimate the ever-growing Nazi threat and remained determined to remain in Vienna even after the Anschluss of 13 March 1938, in which Nazi Germany annexed Austria, and the outbreak of anti-Semitism. Jones, president of the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), flew to Vienna from London via Prague on March 15, deciding to make Freud change his mind and seek exile in Britain. This prospect and surprise of the arrest and interrogation of Anna Freud by the Gestapo finally convinced Freud, it was time to leave Austria. Jones left for London the following week with a list provided by Freud from the ÃÆ' Â © migrÃÆ'Â s party for whom immigration clearance would be required. Back in London, Jones uses his personal acquaintance with Interior Minister, Sir Samuel Hoare, to speed up granting permission. There are seventeen in all and work permits are granted when relevant. Jones also uses his influence in scientific circles, persuading the Royal Society president, Sir William Bragg, to write to Foreign Minister Lord Halifax, asking for a good effect that diplomatic pressure is applied in Berlin and Vienna on behalf of Freud. Freud also received support from American diplomats, especially his former ambassador and American ambassador to France, William Bullitt. Bullitt warned US President Roosevelt to increase the danger faced by Freuds, which resulted in the American consul general in Vienna, John Cooper Wiley, arranging regular monitoring of Berggasse 19. He also intervened through phone calls during the Gestapo interrogation of Anna Freud.
The departure from Vienna began gradually throughout April and May 1938. Freud's grandson Ernst Halberstadt and Freud's son Martin's wife and children left for Paris in April. Freud's brother-in-law, Minna Bernays, left for London on May 5, Martin Freud the following week and the daughter of Freud Mathilde and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on May 24th.
By the end of the month, Freud's own departure arrangements for London had stalled, mired in a tortuous and financially overt negotiating process with the Nazis. Under the regulations imposed on the Jewish population by the new Nazi regime, a Kommissar was appointed to manage Freud's assets and those of the IPA whose base was near Freud's home. Freud is allocated to Dr. Anton Sauerwald, who had studied chemistry at the University of Vienna under Professor Josef Herzig, an old friend of Freud. Sauerwald read Freud's books to learn more about him and sympathized with his situation. Despite being asked to disclose details of all Freud's bank accounts to his superiors and to organize the destruction of the library of historical books stored in the IPA office, Sauerwald did not do so. Instead, he deleted evidence of Freud's foreign bank account for his own deposits and arranged the storage of an IPA library at the Austrian National Library where he remained until the end of the war.
Although Sauerwald's intervention reduced the financial burden of the "aviation" tax on assets declared by Freud, other substantial costs were incurred in connection with IPA debt and valuable collections of antiques owned by Freud. Unable to access his own account, Freud turned to Princess Marie Bonaparte, the most famous and wealthy of her followers in France, who had gone to Vienna to offer her support and it was she who made the necessary funds available. This allowed Sauerwald to sign the necessary exit visas for Freud, his wife, Martha and his daughter, Anna. They left Vienna at the Orient Express on June 4, accompanied by their housekeeper and doctor, arriving in Paris the next day where they stayed as guests of Princess Bonaparte before taking an overnight trip to London to arrive at Victoria Station on 6 June.
Among those who immediately called Freud to pay homage were Salvador DalÃÆ', Stefan Zweig, Leonard Woolf, Virginia Woolf, and H. G. Wells. Representatives of the Royal Society called the Charter of the Society for Freud, who had been elected to Foreign Member in 1936, to sign the membership. Princess Bonaparte arrives towards the end of June to discuss the fate of four elderly Freud sisters left in Vienna. Subsequent attempts to get their visa out failed and they will all die in the Nazi concentration camp.
In early 1939, Sauerwald arrived in London under a mysterious circumstance in which he met Freud's brother Alexander. He was tried and imprisoned in 1945 by an Austrian court for his activities as a Nazi Party official. In response to a request from his wife, Anna Freud wrote to confirm that Sauerwald "used his office as our appointed commissioner in such a way as to protect my father". His intervention helped to free him from prison in 1947.
At Freuds new home, 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead, North London, Vienna Freud consultation room reinvented with loyal detail. He continued to see patients there until the final stage of his illness. He also worked on his final book, Moses and Monotheism, published in Germany in 1938 and in English the following year and an unfinished post-Psychoanalysis Outline that was published posthumously.
Death
In mid-September 1939, Freud's jaw cancer caused the pain to be worse and declared inoperable. The last book he read, Balzac La Peau de chagrin, encouraged reflection on his own weakness and a few days later he turned to the doctor, his friend and fellow refugee Max Schur, reminding him that they had previously discussed the stages the end of the illness: "Schur, you remember our 'contract' not to leave me in trouble when the time came.Now it's nothing but torture and absurdity." When Schur replied that he did not forget, Freud said, "I'm grateful," then "Talk to Anna, and if she thinks it's true, then just end it." Anna Freud wanted to postpone the death of her father, but Schur assured her that it was no use to keep her alive and on September 21 and 22 gave a dose of morphine which resulted in Freud's death at around 3 am on September 23, 1939. However, differences in Schur accounts gave her role in hours Freud's last hour, which in turn caused an inconsistency between Freud's major biographers, has led to further research and revised reports. It proposes that Schur was absent from Freud's death when the third and final dose of morphine was given by Dr. Josephine Stross, a colleague of Anna Freud, who led to Freud's death around midnight on September 23, 1939.
Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium in North London, with Harrods acting as director of the cemetery, on the instruction of his son, Ernst. The funeral oration was given by Ernest Jones and Austrian writer Stefan Zweig. Abu Freud was then stationed at the Ernest George Columbarium crematorium . They rested on a pedestal designed by his son, Ernst, in an ancient Greek crater painted with a Dionysian scene that Freud received as a gift from Princess Bonaparte and which he kept in his workroom in Vienna for many years. After his wife, Martha, died in 1951, his ashes were also placed in jars.
Maps Sigmund Freud
Idea
Initial work
Freud began his medical studies at the University of Vienna in 1873. He took nearly nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, particularly the investigation of eel sexual anatomy and the physiology of the fish's nervous system, and for his interest in philosophy with Franz Brentano. He enters private practice in the field of neurology for financial reasons, receiving a M.D. in 1881 at the age of 25 years. Among his main concerns in the 1880s was the anatomy of the brain, particularly the medulla oblongata. He intervened in the crucial debate about aphasia with his monograph of 1891, Zur Auffassung der Aphasien , in which he coined the term agnosia and advocated a too-national view of the explanation of neurological deficits. Like his contemporary Eugen Bleuler, he emphasizes brain function rather than brain structure.
Freud was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which came to be known as "brain paralysis". He published several medical papers on the topic, and pointed out that the disease existed long before other researchers in that period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William John Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth to be a cause. Instead, he suggests that birth complications are just symptoms.
Freud hopes that his research will provide a strong scientific basis for his therapeutic techniques. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, is to bring suppressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness to free the patient from repeated distorted emotional distress.
Classically, bringing unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging patients to talk about dreams and engaging in free associations, in which patients report their thoughts without a reservation and not trying to concentrate while doing so. Another important element of psychoanalysis is transference, a process in which patients replace their analysts' feelings and ideas derived from previous figures in their lives. The transference was first seen as a regrettable phenomenon that disrupted the restoration of the oppressed memory and disrupted the objectivity of the patient, but in 1912, Freud had seen it as an essential part of the therapeutic process.
The origins of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be attributed to Josef Breuer. Freud praised Breuer by paving the way to the discovery of psychoanalytic methods with his treatment of the case of Anna O. In November 1880, Breuer was called to treat a very intelligent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) to survive a hysteric cough diagnosed. She found that while breastfeeding her dying father, she had developed a number of temporary symptoms, including visual impairment and paralysis and limb contractures, which were also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patients almost daily as his symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that he was entering absent. She finds that when, with her encouragement, she tells fantasy tales at night that her condition does not improve, and most of the symptoms disappeared in April 1881. After her father's death that month. his condition worsened again. Breuer notes that some symptoms are finally deposited spontaneously, and that full recovery is achieved by encouraging him to remember events that have triggered certain symptoms. In the years immediately following Breuer's treatment, Anna O. spent three brief periods in sanatoria with a diagnosis of "hysteria" with "somatic symptoms", and some authors have challenged Breuer's published accounts about healing. Richard Skues rejects this interpretation, which he views from Freudian revisionism and anti-psychoanalysis, which assumes Breuer's account of the case unreliable and his treatment of Anna O. as a failure. Psychologist Frank Sulloway argues that "Freud's case histories are rampant with highly questionable censorship, distortion," reconstruction ", and exaggerated claims."
Seduction Theory
In the early 1890s, Freud used a form of care based on what Breuer had explained to him, modified by what he called the "pressure technique" and the newly developed technique of interpretation and reconstruction analysis. According to Freud's recent report in this period, as a result of the use of this procedure, most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported childhood sexual abuse. He trusted these stories, which he used as the basis of his seduction theory, but then he became convinced it was a fantasy. He describes this initially as having the function of "fending off" memories of children's masturbation, but in subsequent years he writes that they represent the fantasy of Oedipal, which comes from a sexual and destructive innate impulse.
Another version of Freud's events that propose that the unconscious memories of child sexual abuse were the root of psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that he had actually found harassment amongst his patients. In the first half of 1896, Freud published three papers, which led to his seduction theory, stating that he had found, in all his patients today, a very oppressed memory of sexual abuse in early childhood. In this paper, Freud notes that his patients are not aware of these memories, and therefore must be present as unconscious memory if they produce hysterical symptoms or obsessive neuroses. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce" the sexual cruelty of the "scene" that Freud believed had been pressured into the unconscious. Patients are generally not convinced that their experience of Freud's clinical procedures shows actual sexual harassment. She reports that even after sexual sexual "reproduction", the patient reassures her firmly because of their unbelief.
As well as pressure techniques, Freud's clinical procedures involve analytic inference and symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to the memory of child sexual abuse. His claim of a hundred percent confirmation of his theory only serves to reinforce the previous revelation of his colleagues about the validity of the findings obtained by his suggestive technique. Freud then pointed out the inconsistency of whether his seduction theory is still in line with his later findings. In an addendum to The Aetiology of Hysteria he states: "All this is true [sexual abuse of children], but it must be remembered that at the time I wrote it I have not escaped from my excessive judgment of reality and my low judgment of fantasy ". A few years later, Freud explicitly rejected his colleague Ferenczi's claim that his patient's report on sexual harassment was an actual memory, not a fantasy, and he tried to prevent Ferenczi from making his views public. Karin Ahbel-Rappe concludes in his study "'I no longer believe': did Freud abandon the theory of seduction? '':" Freud marked and began tracing the inquiry into the nature of the incest experience of children and its impact on the human psyche, this for the most part. "
Cocaine
As a medical researcher, Freud is an early adopter and a supporter of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He believes that cocaine is a cure for many mental and physical problems, and in his 1884 paper "On Coca" he praised his kindness. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote several articles recommending medical applications, including their use as antidepressants. He scarcely gained the scientific priority for discovering his anesthetic properties which he realized but only mentioned in passing. (Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud in Vienna, accepted the difference in 1884 after reporting to the medical community the way cocaine could be used in elaborate eye operations.) Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for morphine addiction. He has introduced cocaine to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow who has become addicted to morphine taken to ease the overwhelming nerve pain caused by an infection acquired while performing an autopsy. His claim that Fleischl-Marxow was cured of his addiction was premature, though he never admitted that he was guilty. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis", and soon returned to morphine, dying a few years later after suffering more from unbearable pain.
Application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and when reports of addiction and overdose began to filter out from many parts of the world, Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished.
After Freud's "Cocaine Episode" stops openly recommends the use of the drug, but continues to retrieve it occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before being discontinued in 1896.
The Unconscious
The concept of the subconscious is central to Freud's thought of the mind. Freud believed that although poets and thinkers have long known the existence of the unconscious, he has ensured that he receives scientific recognition in the field of psychology. The concept made an informal appearance in Freud's writings.
The subconscious was first introduced in connection with the phenomenon of repression, to explain what happened to the suppressed ideas. Freud states explicitly that the concept of the unconscious is based on the theory of repression. He postulates a cycle in which ideas are suppressed, but remains in the mind, removed from conscious but operative, then reappears in consciousness under certain circumstances. Postulates are based on investigations into cases of traumatic hysteria, which reveal cases where patient behavior can not be explained without reference to ideas or thoughts that they have no consciousness. This fact, combined with the observation that such behavior can be artificially driven by hypnosis, in which ideas are inserted into people's minds, suggest that the ideas work in genuine cases, even though their subject does not know anything about them.
Freud, like Josef Breuer, finds the hypothesis that hysterical manifestations are generated by ideas not only justified but given in observation. Disagreement among them arose when they tried to give a causal explanation of their data: Breuer liked the hypnoid hypothesis state, while Freud postulated the defense mechanism. Richard Wollheim commented that given the close connection between hysteria and the results of hypnosis, Breuer's hypothesis seems more plausible, and that only when repression is taken into account that Freud's hypothesis is better.
Freud originally allowed that the persecution may be a deliberate process, but when he wrote his second paper on "Neuro-Psychoses of Defense" (1896), he seemed to believe that repression, which he called the "psychic (unconscious) occurs at an unconscious level. Freud increasingly developed his theory of unconsciousness in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) and in Jokes and Relation to the Unconscious (1905), where he deals with condensation and displacement as a characteristic inherent from unconscious mental activity. Freud presented his first systematic statement of his hypothesis of unconscious mental processes in 1912, in response to an invitation from the London Society of Psychical Research to contribute to his Proceedings. In 1915, Freud expanded the statement to a more ambitious metapsychological paper, entitled "The Unconscious". In both of these papers, when Freud tried to distinguish between conceptions of the unconscious and those who preceded psychoanalysis, he found them in the postulate of simultaneously latent and operative ideas.
Dream
Freud believed that the function of dreams is to sustain sleep by representing a fulfilled desire that would otherwise arouse the dreamer.
In the dream of Freud's theory instigated by everyday events and thoughts of everyday life. His claim that they serve as the fulfillment of desires is based on the report of "dreams" in terms of the transformation of the "secondary process" thought, which is governed by the rules of language and the principle of reality, into the "main process" of the subconscious mind. governed by the principle of pleasure, the desires of gratuities and sexual scenarios being suppressed from childhood.
To preserve sleep, dreamwork disguises the distressed or "latent" content of dreams in the interaction of words and images that Freud describes in terms of condensation, displacement and distortion. It produces the "real content" of the dream as told in the dream narrative. For Freud, the unpleasant content of manifests may still represent the fulfillment of wishes at the level of latent content. In a clinical setting Freud encourages free association to dream manifest content to facilitate access to its latent content. Freud believed interpreting dreams in this way could provide important insights into the formation of neurotic symptoms and contribute to the mitigation of their pathological effects.
Psychosexual development
Freud's psychosexual development theory proposes that, following from the early polymorphism of the sexuality of children, sexual "impulses" pass through different developmental phases of oral, anal, and phallic. Although these phases then give way to the latency stage of reduced interest and sexual activity (from the age of five to puberty, approximately), they leave, to a greater or lesser degree, "bad" and bisexual residues that persist for the formation of adult sexuality of the sexes. Freud argues that neurosis or irregularities can be explained in the form of fixation or regression in these phases while adult characters and cultural creativity can achieve sublimation of their bad residues.
After Freud later developed the complex theory of Oedipus, this normative developmental trajectory was formulated in the form of a child's denial of incestuous passion under the threat of phantasised (or fact of phantasised, in the case of the girl) castration. The "dissolution" of the Oedipus complex is then achieved when the identification of a child's enemy with a parental figure transforms into a soothing identification of the Ego ideal that considers both similarity and difference and recognizes separateness and other autonomy.
Freud hopes to prove that his model is universally applicable and turns to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography to comparative material that denotes totemism reflects the ritual endorsement of the Oedipal tribal conflict.
Id, ego, and super-ego
Freud proposed that the human soul can be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and was fully described in The Ego and the Id (1923), where he developed it as an alternative to the previous topographic scheme (ie, conscious, unconscious and unconscious). Ids are part of a fully unconscious, impulsive soul, like a child operating on a "pleasure principle" and a source of basic encouragement and encouragement; it's looking for fun and immediate satisfaction.
Freud admits that his use of the term Id ( das Es , "That") comes from Georg Groddeck's writings. The super-ego is a moral component of the soul, which does not take into account the particular circumstances in which the right morally may be inappropriate for a given situation. The rational ego attempts to balance between the impractical set of id and the equally impractical moralism of the super-ego; it is a part of the soul that is usually reflected most directly in one's actions. When overloaded or threatened by his duties, he may use defense mechanisms including rejection, oppression, destruction, rationalization, and displacement. This concept is usually represented by "Iceberg Model". This model represents the role played by Id, Ego, and Super Ego in relation to the conscious and unconscious mind.
Freud compares the relationship between ego and id with it between a coachman and his horses: the horses provide energy and encouragement, while the coachmen provide direction.
Drive for life
Freud believed that the human soul is subject to two contradictory urges: the impulse of life or libido and the impulse of death. The urge of life is also called "Eros" and the death of the "Thanatos" drive, although Freud does not use the latter term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul Federn. Freud hypothesizes that libido is a form of mental energy with the processes, structures, and representations of objects invested.
In Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920), Freud deduces the existence of the death drive. The premise is the principle of arrangement that has been described as the "principle of psychic inertia", "the principle of Nirvana", and "conservatism of the instincts". His background was Freud's previous Project for a Scientific Psychology, where he has defined the principle governing mental apparatus as his tendency to escape quantity or reduce tension to zero. Freud had the duty to abandon the definition, as it proved to be sufficient for the most basic types of mental functions, and to replace the notion that officials tend toward zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level of tension.
Freud basically reread the original definition in Beyond the Pleasure Principle , this time applying it to a different principle. He confirmed that
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